 |
|
 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
 |
 |
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Self-extinguishing cigarettes rules introduced in the USA - now also discussed in the EU The most common initiating event in a fatal fire is the dropping of a cigarette onto a bed or piece of upholstered furniture, causing 20 % of the estimated U.S. fire deaths from 1992-1996 in residential structures. Every year, cigarette-initiated fires claim 800 lives, cause another 2 000 serious injuries, and result in a total cost to the Nation in excess of $ 4 billion. In the light of this heavy death toll, the test method ASTM E2187 "Standard Test Method for Measuring the Ignition Strength of Cigarettes" has been developed in the USA to test cigarettes intended to go out if they are put down. The idea behind it was to improve public safety through requirements for less fire-prone cigarettes. The test method measures the capability of a cigarette, positioned on one of three standard substrates, to generate sufficient heat to continue burning and thus potentially cause ignition of bedding or upholstered furniture. It was published end of 2002 and is now also introduced as an international ISO standard. What is a self-extinguishing cigarette? Typically, what makes these cigarettes different is the paper. At least two bands of special paper of about 2 mm width are applied on top of the traditional cigarette paper about 2 cm from the cigarette tip. These bands, sometimes also called "rings," are akin to roadway "speed bumps" because they slow down the speed at which a cigarette burns, because they limit the air flow through the paper to the burn zone of the cigarette. If such a cigarette is left unattended, it will be more likely to self-extinguish than other cigarettes (if the cigarette has not burnt passed the rings yet). However, absolute safety is not guaranteed, because the standard requires "only" that 7 out of 10 specimens pass do not burn through.
In January 2004, the State of New York promulgated the world's first law requiring that all cigarettes sold in the State must meet a standard for low risk of igniting household furnishings. Since then, similar regulations have already been introduced in 26 American states, which have banned the sale of cigarettes that do not comply with the requirements of the standard. A similar bill has been enacted in Canada. Launched at a hearing in the European Parliament in February 2007, the Alliance of National Health Authorities is now discussing legislation for reduced-ignition-propensity (RIP) cigarettes in Europe. The Alliance has issued the following notice: "In view of the fact that it is technically and economically feasible for cigarettes to meet fire safety standards, tobacco manufacturers should be required to produce and market only reduced ignition propensity cigarettes in the EU. Tobacco manufacturers should use the same standard as in the USA and Canada, ASTM E 2187". back to top>>> Welding work causes blaze in the roof of the Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall On 20 May 2008, a spectacular blaze destroyed one third - around 1 600 square meters - of the Berliner Philharmonic roof. Although the first fire engines arrived at the scene just six minutes after the alarm was sounded, fighting the fire proved difficult. The firefighters had to cut a hole in the zinc sheeted, tent-shaped roof some 50 meters above ground to get to the fire and extinguish embers and glowing parts in the roof structure over the concrete ceiling of the concert hall. Copious amounts of smoke developed up to 500 meters around the fire site. The concert hall underneath and the precious instruments were not damaged. Nobody was hurt. Initially is was not clear how the fire started. One week after the blaze, the investigations on the fire cause were completed. It had now become evident that the fire was caused by welding work. Repairs had been done on the roof of the Philharmonic, and parts of the zinc roof were removed to exchange defective roof sheeting. According to the police, a burner was used and obviously, the insulation structure under the roofing ignited, leading to a smouldering fire. The roof structure consists of: Basis: Concrete
roof This fire has
shown that even roofs insulated with non-combustible insulation
materials like mineral wool may contribute to blazes with strong
smoke development. The reason is that insulation materials are not
used alone but in conjunction with combustible materials like wood
and bitumen. The non-combustible mineral wool may lead to smouldering
fires and promote the formation of embers difficult to fire fight.
The International Electrotechnical Commission IEC and fire safety activities International
electrical standards are established by the "International
Electrotechnical Commission" (IEC), which was founded more
than 100 years ago in 1906. The objective is to promote international
cooperation on all questions of standardization and related matters
in the fields of electrical and electronic engineering.
One of the most
important IEC developments regarding fire safety is the introduction
of external ignition requirements for IT and audio/video equipment
in IEC/TC 108 "Safety of electronic equipment within the field
of audio/video, information technology and communication technology"
based on the new IEC Technical Specification IEC/TS 62441 "Accidentally
caused candle flame ignition". Taiwanese Jet Explodes Into Flames at Okinawa Airport On August 20, 2007, a China Airlines jet exploded into flames at Okinawa airport after arriving from Taiwan, but all 165 people aboard escaped alive. All 157 passengers - including two small children - fled the Boeing 737-800 unhurt on inflated emergency slides just minutes before the plane burst into a fireball, a Transport Ministry official told reporters. Officials said that the aircraft skidded on the tarmac on its way from the runway to the gate after landing, starting a fire that prompted the emergency evacuation. The eight-member crew also safely left the plane. "The fire started when the left engine exploded a minute after the aircraft entered the parking spot," said another official, adding that airport traffic controllers had received no report from the pilot indicating anything was wrong. Several passengers interviewed by Japanese NHK TV said they were suddenly told to use the emergency slides to evacuate as they were preparing to get off the plane after what seemed like an ordinary landing. Some said they saw smoke and flames entering the cabin and that they heard explosions minutes after they exited the aircraft. News reports said a massive fuel leak from a damaged pipe near the plane's right engine could have led to the explosions. Authorities are also investigating whether any loose plane parts or objects could have been sucked into the engine, damaging the fuel pipe, a News agency said. A catastrophe
has been prevented by the pilots and the crew who acted with great
bravery. The entire evacuation only took three minutes after ground
crew told the pilot they spotted fires on the jet's wings. In addition,
fire safety regulations for aircraft require a fuselage to resist
an external fuel fire for four minutes, and the combustible flame
retarded materials used in the cabin interior to minimize fire propagation,
heat release, and the formation of smoke and toxic gases within
these four minutes, for ensuring safe evacuation of passengers.
Both, the bravery of the crew and the fire safety requirements for
aircraft eventually saved the lives of the 165 persons involved
in the fire. Nanocomposites and flame retardancy Nanocomposites are polymers reinforced with nanomaterials. They are highly praised and a subject of intensive research, because they show impressive performance for multifunctional applications at a relatively low filler level of 2 to 5 percent by weight. While carbon nanotubes and nanofibres play a secondary role, nanoclays are the most dominant commercial nanomaterials; they are defined by the particle size of the dispersed phase having at least one dimension less than 100 nm. Polymer layered silicates provide enhanced mechanical, thermal and barrier properties to polymers. The enhancement in properties is largely attributed to the aspect ratio and intercalation ability of the layered silicates, resulting in high specific surface area and hence more potential for polymer filler interaction. The effect of nanocomposites in improving the fire safety of polymers is of increasing interest to researchers in academia and industry. While the significant reduction in heat release rate during the combustion process of nanocomposites was reported for quite some time, the flame retardancy of polymer filled with nanoclays has not further improved to generally achieve industrial acceptance. It appears that nanoclays enhance the thermal stability, prevent dripping, and form a solid char, but they do not improve fire retardancy on their own. However, in conjunction with mineral flame retardants such as alumina trihydrate (ATH), magnesium hydroxide, zinc borate, or brominated flame retardants, they act as synergists and the addition of 2 to 5 wt% of montmorillonite allows to dramatically reducing the amount of these flame retardants without affecting the flame retardancy of the polymer. Unfortunately, there are some restrictions for their use: only polar polymers like ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) or polyamides are suitable for dispersing the nanoclays, and montmorillonite nanoclays already begin to degrade at around 200°C, due to the rapid thermal decomposition of their quaternary ammonium components. The only commercially available flame retarded polymers containing nanoclays to date are polyolefin cable applications based on polyethylene and EVA with montmorillonite and ATH as the flame retardant system. They have a good fire safety performance, but are rather expensive, as the cheapest component of the formulation, ATH, is dramatically reduced in this formulation. Therefore, much work remains to be achieved for developing nanocomposites addressing the needs of the flame retardant markets. back to top>>> Fire hazard No. 1: Christmas trees Every year, during the holiday season, the newspapers report on fires initiated by Christmas trees. Why? The "standard design" of a Christmas tree, a 2.2 m high Scotch pine, has around 400 000 needles. The needles with their high resin content, not the twigs and the trunk, are the real hazard in the fire load of the tree. The Christmas
trees are cut end of November. For two or three weeks, the trees
are not watered and the needles become extremely dry and increasingly
flammable. When a candle fire touches the needles, the resin begins
to liquefy and to evaporate. The resin burns immediately and initiates
a chain reaction: flames jump from needle to needle, the decoration
flares, the Christmas tree balls fall off. Within a few seconds,
the tree is completely ablaze and ignites gifts, paper, boards,
curtains and the whole furniture in the room. Within a few minutes,
"flashover" may occur - that's when an entire room erupts
into flames. How can we protect ourselves against such fires? Here are some tips from fire brigades and insurers:
Better fire safety in buses needed Fire incidents in buses are frequent and potentially catastrophic considering the confined space and sometimes difficult evacuation. In 2005, two major disasters occurred, one in Poland where 11 young people were killed after a collision with subsequent rapid fire development inside the bus, and the second in U.S. Texas, where a bus fire developed so quickly that it was impossible to evacuate the passengers and 23 people were killed. A recent statistical survey of bus fires in Norway and Sweden revealed that 1 to 1.5 % of the buses in traffic are involved in a fire incident every year. Due to this high frequency of fires, SP, the Swedish National Testing and Research Institute started a two years research programme on bus fire safety in 2005 with the aim to decrease the number and consequences of bus fires. The investigation is commissioned by the Norwegian and Swedish Public Road Administrations. The programme covers several areas such as a statistical survey of fires, material fire properties evaluation, a review of bus constructions and handling, tests for fire resisting divisions, development work on testing methods for engine room fire detection and extinguishment systems and simulation. A long-term goal is to amend the European vehicle directives with higher fire safety requirements for buses and coaches. In Europe, currently only low fire safety levels for materials and components used in buses are required. Most of the materials are tested to horizontal flame spread with a Bunsen burner test (MVSS 302), curtains to a small flame test simulating a match (ISO 6940) and head linings to a dripping test (NF P 92 505); all are easily met. The objective of the project is to show the low fire safety level in buses based on the tests used and to demonstrate the higher fire safety provided by modern fire performance tests. A number of bus interior materials (wall panels, floorings, curtains, insulation, plastic panels and seats) have been tested in these modern bench scale fire tests to evaluate
The results obtained so far indicate that most of the materials currently used in buses do not pass the new fire performance tests and therefore present a considerable fire hazard.
Fire protection of rail vehicles: New European and German developments in 2007 Fire protection of rail vehicles is described in the draft European Technical Specification series CEN/TS 45545 Parts 1 to 7. The European standardisation work started in the 1990ies and is still ongoing, as many parts of the standard were rejected and others are still under revision. In order to speed up the procedure, first all parts will be published as Technical Specifications. It is hoped that they will be adopted by the end of 2007, and that the standard EN 45545 will be published in 2010. The new CEN/TS 45545 is to be referenced in railway directives in order to immediately make methods and classifications compulsory. CEN/TS 45545 Part 2 "Requirements for fire behaviour of materials and components" is also still under enquiry, and is to be adopted in autumn 2007. In CEN/TS 45545-2, heat fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m² for materials > 0.25 m² or > 100 g in railway interiors are applied for the following tests:
The toxicity requirements concern the following components of fire effluents:
All these requirements do not apply for small parts < 0.25 m² or < 100 g. Therefore, smaller components, particularly electrical parts, will not be affected by these requirements. In Germany, requirements regarding the fire performance, smoke development and dripping apply for materials and components used in rolling stock. To date, there were no German toxicity requirements. However, for allowing German rolling stock to be used immediately in other European countries with toxicity requirements, the new CEN/TS 45545-2 smoke and toxicity requirements and tests foreseen for rail vehicles are about to be nationally introduced in an annex of DIN 5510-2, probably mid-2007. This national regulation will remain effective until EN 45545 is implemented in 2010, and the national standard DIN 5510 withdrawn. back to top>>> The new Burnthrough Resistance Test for thermal and acoustic insulation materials in aircraft In aircraft
accidents, a significant number of fatalities are caused by the
effects of fire. A well known fire catastrophe was the Swissair
flight 111 accident at Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada, on 2 September
1998, leading to the death of 215 passengers and 14 crew members.
Investigations revealed that the fire developed between the fuselage
and the passenger cabin, involving the insulation in the propagation
of the fire. The fire source is the kerosene burner already in use for aircraft seating. The heat output of the burner towards the test specimen is 125 kW/m². No flame penetration is allowed for 4 min and the heat flux at the backside of the specimen must not exceed 22.7 kW/m² at a distance of 30 cm. Only materials with very high fire safety levels pass the Burnthrough Resistance test. They will help to avoid such catastrophic fires in the future. Smoke Detectors and Flame Retardants for Improving Fire Protection in Residential Buildings The German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) has been entrusted by EFRA, the European Flame Retardants Association, to develop a model of fire development and escape times reflecting European residential buildings for optimising fire safety by using smoke detectors and flame retardants. Although decreasing, fire losses in Europe are still high, with approximately 4 000 deaths, and 500 to 600 deaths per year in Germany. About 80 % of fatalities occur in residential buildings. Smoke detectors are promoted to reduce these fire losses: In the UK, 80 %, and in the USA, nearly 100 % of households have smoke alarms. Investigations of fire research centres in the USA (NIST) and in Sweden (SP) showed that smoke detectors have a positive effect on fire safety, but they also revealed that escape times can be very short in residential fires, even down to 3-4 minutes. The highly increased usage of plastics in the home and their often high flammability are most likely the reason for a decrease in escape time from about 17 minutes in the 1970s to around 4 minutes nowadays. Preliminary results presented by BAM at the FRPM'05 Conference, Berlin, in September 2005 show that temperatures in a furnished living room can reach 100°C within 6 minutes of the start of a fire. The objective is to show, using real and modelled fire data in set ups comparable to real European furnished flats, that although smoke alarms give inhabitants a rapid warning, the short times to flash-over make it advisable to additionally use flame retarded grades of items like TV sets or upholstered furniture. Flame retardants delay or inhibit the start of a fire with the benefit of additional escape time, thus saving lives. The results obtained so far show that the combination of using smoke detectors for early warning and flame retardants for inhibiting flame propagation leads to better fire safety in residential buildings. The final report of the BAM project is expected in early 2006. Residential fire caused by a TV-set Fire hazard from battery-operated devices In the last months, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) announced several recalls related to fire hazard from batteries. CPSC is committed to protecting consumers and families from more than 15 000 types of consumer products that pose a fire, electrical, chemical, or mechanical hazard or can injure children. Thus, in cooperation with CPSC, several companies announced voluntary recalls of digital cameras and lithium-ion batteries because these items may pose a fire hazard to consumers. In June 2006, Hewlett Packard (HP) recalled 680 000 digital cameras worldwide. The camera can cause non-rechargeable batteries to overheat when on its docking station or AC adapter. A case of the camera catching fire, causing smoke damage but no injuries, has been reported. In the meantime, HP has developed a firmware update that prevents the camera from applying a charge to a non-rechargeable battery. In August 2006,
two recalls concerning fire hazards through lithium-ion batteries
took place: On August 24th, Apple followed in voluntarily recalling about 1.8 million battery packs worldwide. Here too, the lithium-ion batteries can overheat, and create a fire hazard to consumers. Apple has received nine reports of batteries overheating, including two reports of minor burns from handling overheated computers and other reports of minor property damage. No serious injuries were reported. All these examples show that even equipment which is battery-operated at low voltages can present a fire risk. Further details
under: http://www.cpsc.gov On Saturday, February 12, 2005, a fire described as the worst in Madrid's history has reportedly broke out because of a short circuit. More than 200 Fire fighters battled the blaze in the 106 m-high, 32-storey Windsor skyscraper and seven suffered minor injuries due to smoke inhalation. In the fire, temperatures exceeded 800°C and reached up to 1 500 °C. The blaze, which began at 11:20 pm Saturday on the 21st and 22nd floors of the tower, burnt throughout Sunday as flames spread to lower floors. High amounts of office furnishings, paper and plastics consistently nourished the raging fire. The building was almost empty when the first alarm went off. Although the flames were no longer visible from the outside by Sunday night, grey smoke and ash stoked by gusts of wind continued to pour from the blackened shell of the building. Earlier in the day, several top floors collapsed onto lower ones. Later, it appeared that the reinforced concrete core of the building would hold, despite having been exposed to temperatures in excess of 1 000 °C. "Despite all the intense heat, the structure has survived," Javier Ayuso, a spokesman for Madrid's emergencies services, said. "The key to the strength of this building is its reinforced concrete core, which ties the structure together," Genaro Alas, the architect who designed the Windsor, explained. But even steel frame structures can withstand such severe fire conditions for a limited time with extensive application of fire protection coatings. Built between 1973 and 1979 by the Alas y Casariego studio, the Windsor Building was one of Madrid's first skyscrapers and an emblem of the Spanish economic and political transition. Around 2 000 people worked there.back to top>>> Here you find some pictures and more information about the fire: Does
Europe take action on the fire safety of electric appliances and
electronic equipment? In the meeting
of the WG LVD Update in October 2003, fire safety objectives were
discussed and the following proposals were made: It is interesting
to note that the protection of electrical equipment against fire
hazards now is also supposed to include the impact of external ignition
sources. This will lead to higher fire safety levels of electrical
equipment and thus ensure better consumer protection. Candle ignites TV-set and leads to fire catastrophe In the night
to April 25th, 2005, two people died and three were wounded in a
blaze in Pankow near Berlin. Berlin's chief fire fighter Albrecht
Broemme said "This is the worst fire I have ever seen in a
new building". 150 fire fighters were on site, rescued 80 persons
and evacuated them, among them the swim star Stev Theloke. The inferno
started with a fallen down candle igniting a TV-set. Within four
minutes, the whole room got involved in the fire. Link
(German): http://morgenpost.berlin1.de Three blazes hit African immigrants in Paris In Paris, two consecutive fires, on Friday 23rd and in the night to Tuesday, 29th August, killed more than 20 African immigrants in buildings. Before, in April, a similar blaze killed 24 immigrants. Some 100 fire fighters and 30 vehicles were used to control the latest fire, which is said to have started around 10 p.m. in the lower part of the building in the staircase and rapidly spread in the six-storey building. The exact cause of the fire is not known, but it is believed that it started from faulty, free hanging cables in a trash area. It took the fire brigades two hours to bring the inferno under control. In all three lethal blazes that hit African immigrants the flames spread quickly from the stairwell to the dilapidated wooden interiors of the apartments. These run-down apartment buildings used as temporary housings are overcrowded by immigrants. Usually, in this sort of buildings, there are problems with the plumbing and electric installations, and means of fire protection (fire extinguishers, fire hoses, and means of escape) do not exist. Official figures on the number of provisional housing facilities for immigrants awaiting permanent state-subsidized accommodations are not available, but it is estimated that there are hundreds of such buildings. Demands for subsidized housing have surged in the past decade. According to the Paris city hall, 102 500 applications are pending, compared with about 85 000 ten years ago. Last year, 100 000 applicants competed for only 10 000 units. To avoid such fire catastrophes is rather a political than a fire safety problem. Due to the growing number of immigrants, a sufficient number of subsidized housings have to be made available which comply with basic rules of fire protection: e.g. appropriate escape routes with a minimum fire load and without easily flammable materials as well as a back-up escape routes. However, this is certainly a major challenge for the authorities. back to top>>> Flame Retardants - Frequently Asked Questions In January 2004, EFRA, the European Flame Retardants Association, has published a 32-page brochure on "Flame retardants - frequently asked questions" in English, German and French. Those interested in fire safety and flame retardants will find answers to questions on subjects like
The subjects cover basics like the course of a fire, the main fire parameters, fire safety regulations and standards for building, transportation, electrical engineering & electronics (E&E), upholstered furniture and textiles. Detailed information is given on the mode of action, the main families of flame retardants and their uses. Health and environment concerns often voiced against flame retardants are discussed, and questions regarding toxicity and environmental impact (persistence, accumulation, dioxins), and the status of the European Union risk assessments for various flame retardants are answered. Eventually, questions on recycling and waste management of E&E waste (European WEEE and RoHS directives), mechanical and chemical recycling of plastics containing flame retardants are answered. The brochure is extremely helpful for all those involved in fire safety and flame retardancy of plastics. It is available on request from EFRA or can be downloaded from the EFRA website as pdf-files.back to top>>>
|
